CHAPTER 16: Exploration and Expansion

The Scientific Revolution

A. Astronomy, Physics, and Anatomy

1. Nicholas Copernicus investigated Ptolemy’s geocentric theory

a. Speculated that sun is center of universe

2. Johannes Kepler benefited from Brahe’s records

a. Used mathematical data to show that planets move in elliptical orbit

b. Laws of planetary motion convincing, but did not explain why planets circled sun

3. Galileo Galilei, persistent scientific rebel

a. Made telescope, observed sun, moon, planets

B. New Ways of Thinking

1. Scientific method stressed logic, reason, evidence, used combination of induction, deduction

2. René Descartes started new mode of deduction; all could be rationally explained, in mathematical terms

3. Francis Bacon contributed to scientific methodology

a. Experimental system, inductive approach

C. The Newtonian Universe

1. Sir Isaac Newton synthesized previous discoveries into an all-embracing principle

a. One universal law of gravity governs the entire world of matter

2. Expressed ideas mathematically in Principia

3. Solved problems of Kepler, Galileo by combining methods of Descartes, Bacon

D. The Popularity of Science

1. Practical use of science changed its social role

a. Accepted by highest society

3. Businessmen applied knowledge to practical problems of mining, irrigating, manufacturing, shipbuilding, navigation

The Foundations of European Exploration

A. Conditions Favoring Iberian Expansion

1. 16th-century activities transformed Europe

2. Iberians sailed to combat Turkish market control

3. Portuguese, Spanish mastered new technology, techniques

a. Used compass, astrolabe, lateen sail, and rudder

b. Produced more accurate maps, charts

c. Built bigger ships (broad bows, deep keels)

d. Added cannons to attack ships w/o ramming/boarding

4. Profited from immunities to diseases that devastated the Amerindians

B. The Shifting Commercial Revolution

1. With decline of Iberian states, northern states emerged, led by Dutch, then French and British

2. Economic power shared by Italians, Germans, Dutch merchants, moneylenders

a. Joint stock companies formed

C. Reasons for Exploration

1. Political

2. Economical

3. Social/Religious

Voyages of Portugal and Spain

A. Staking Claims

1. Portugal gained lead on Spain in 1400s

a. Staked claims all along coast of West Africa

b. Led by Prince Henry the Navigator

c. Diaz reached tip of Africa, 1488

2. Spain began to challenge Portuguese claims, Treaty of Tordesillas set down Spain/Portugal line

B. The Developing Portuguese Empire

1. Vasco da Gama made rich, hard voyage to India

2. Pedro Cabral stumbled onto Brazil

3. Alfonso de Albuquerque blocked Arabs at Ormuz, fortified trading posts (Mozambique, Zanzibar)

A. Gained bases at Hormuz, Goa, and Malacca

C. The Growth of New Spain

1. Conquistadores conquered New World

2. Aztec Empire weakened before Spanish arrival

3. Hernando Cortés came with some resources

a. 11 ships, 600 soldiers, 200 servants, 16 horses, 32 crossbows, 13 muskets, 14 mobile cannons

b. At first welcomed by Montezuma, who knew legend of Quetzalcoatl

c. Tenochtitlán, Mexico City, became capital of Spanish Empire, base for conquistadors

4. Mexico vice-royalty base to colonize Philippines

a. Ferdinand Magellan, following Vasco de Balboa, led voyage to Philippines

D. Development of Spanish South America

1. Small group destroyed complex civilization

a. Francisco Pizarro led 200 men to defeat Atahualpa and 6,000 Incas

The Spanish and Dutch Empires

A. The General Nature of the Regimes

1. Iberian period pre-1600 violent, ruthless

a. Highly organized states destroyed through disease, inhumane treatment, populations wiped out

B. Iberian Economies in America

1. Plantations to produce cash crops developed in some regions

2. Iberians initially used Amerindian labor; imported African slaves after epidemics

C. Iberian Effects upon Amerindian Life

1. Spanish and Portuguese devastated Indians

2. Encomienda system required forced labor, brought horrendous abuses

a. Bartolomé de Las Casas decried harsh treatment of Indians

b. Juan Gines de Sepulveda believed in Spanish supremacy

D. Spanish Colonial Society and Culture

1. Peninsulares, Creoles, Mestizos, mulattos, zambos, Indians and Black slaves

E. Spain as the Model for Catholic Absolutism

1. Philip II led Spain as strongest European power

a. Defender of Catholic faith, used Inquisition

b. took Spain; gained world empire, conflict with Turks, Protestants

c. Defended Spanish interests, not tool of Pope

F. The Revolt of the Netherlands

1. Philip’s policies helped domestic unity, sparked disaster in Netherlands

a. Catholic conformity policy sparked resistance

2. Philip’s forces fought heresy, used Inquisition

a. Calvinist mobs fought back, attacked churches

b. Philip sent Duke of Alva, imposed martial law

3. William of Orange led resistance

a. After early defeats, gained success in north

b. Dutch continued to resist, even after assassination of William of Orange